In This Article
Foundations of Rasa Theory: From Bharata Muni to the Stage
The concept of rasa — literally "juice," "essence," or "flavour" — is arguably the most profound contribution of Indian aesthetic philosophy to the performing arts. Its origins lie in the Natyashastra, the monumental treatise on dramaturgy composed by Bharata Muni, dated variously between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. In its celebrated sixth chapter, the Rasadhyaya, Bharata articulates the foundational formula: "Vibhavanubhava-vyabhichari-samyogad rasa-nishpattih" — rasa arises from the combination of vibhava (determinants or stimuli), anubhava (consequent expressions), and vyabhichari bhavas (transitory emotional states).
Bharata originally enumerated eight rasas, each arising from a corresponding sthayibhava (permanent or dominant emotion). The ninth rasa, shanta (peace or tranquillity), was championed later by the great Kashmiri aesthetician Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1016 CE) in his landmark commentary, the Abhinavabharati. While some scholars and traditions debated its inclusion, shanta rasa gradually became integral to the canon, giving us the Navarasa — the nine aesthetic emotions that constitute the complete emotional palette of Indian classical dance and theatre.
It is essential to understand that rasa is not merely the emotion felt by the performer; it is the aesthetic experience evoked in the sahridaya — the sympathetic, cultivated spectator. The dancer is a conduit, and the mastery of abhinaya (expressive communication) is what determines whether rasa truly blossoms in the hearts of the audience.
The Nine Rasas: Sthayibhava, Colour, and Deity
Each rasa in the Natyashastra is associated with a sthayibhava, a presiding deity, and a specific colour. Understanding these associations reveals the depth of codification that underlies what might appear, on stage, to be spontaneous emotional expression.
- Sringara (Love/Erotic) — Arising from rati (love/desire). Colour: shyama (dark green or bluish-green). Deity: Vishnu. Regarded by many as the "rasa-raja", the king of rasas, sringara encompasses both sambhoga (love in union) and vipralambha (love in separation). In Bharatanatyam, the celebrated padam compositions of Kshetrayya (17th century) and the ashtapadis of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda (12th century) are supreme vehicles for sringara.
- Hasya (Laughter/Comic) — Arising from hasa (mirth). Colour: white. Deity: Pramatha. Often portrayed through exaggerated imitation, playful teasing, or depictions of the gopis' antics with Krishna.
- Karuna (Compassion/Pathos) — Arising from shoka (sorrow). Colour: grey or dove-coloured. Deity: Yama. Perhaps the most demanding rasa for a dancer, karuna requires the evocation of profound grief without descent into melodrama. The lament of Sita in exile or Draupadi's humiliation in the Kaurava court are classic narrative contexts.
- Raudra (Fury/Wrathful) — Arising from krodha (anger). Colour: red. Deity: Rudra. Dancers portray raudra through widened, reddened eyes, flared nostrils, aggressive hastas (hand gestures), and forceful footwork.
- Vira (Heroic/Valorous) — Arising from utsaha (energy/enthusiasm). Colour: golden or wheat-coloured. Deity: Indra. Depictions of Rama's battle with Ravana or Arjuna's resolve on the battlefield call upon vira rasa, demanding expansive, powerful movements and an erect, commanding posture.
- Bhayanaka (Fear/Terror) — Arising from bhaya (fear). Colour: black. Deity: Kala. The dancer conveys terror through trembling limbs, darting eyes, a contracted body, and an open, quivering mouth.
- Bibhatsa (Disgust/Odious) — Arising from jugupsa (revulsion). Colour: blue. Deity: Mahakala. A turning away of the face, wrinkling of the nose, and an expression of nausea characterise this rasa, often used in narratives involving moral corruption or grotesque encounters.
- Adbhuta (Wonder/Marvellous) — Arising from vismaya (astonishment). Colour: yellow. Deity: Brahma. Wide-open eyes, raised eyebrows, and an expression of breathless awe — such as when witnessing Krishna's vishvarupa (cosmic form) — define adbhuta on stage.
- Shanta (Peace/Tranquillity) — Arising from sama or nirveda (detachment, spiritual calm). Colour: white or the colour of jasmine. Deity: Narayana or Vishnu. Shanta is perhaps the most elusive rasa to convey in dance, demanding a stillness that communicates not absence of emotion but a transcendence of it.
The Dancer's Toolkit: Abhinaya Techniques for Rasa
The evocation of rasa in classical dance rests upon the four pillars of abhinaya as defined by Bharata: angika (body), vachika (speech/song), aharya (costume and décor), and sattvika (psycho-physical states). It is the interplay of angika and sattvika abhinaya that most directly concerns the dancer seeking to embody the Navarasa.
Facial expression (mukha abhinaya) is the foremost instrument. The Natyashastra and its companion texts, particularly the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikesvara, codify the movements of the eyebrows, eyelids, eyeballs, cheeks, nose, lips, chin, and neck (shirobheda and grivabheda) with extraordinary precision. A master practitioner like the legendary Bharatanatyam exponent Balasaraswati (1918–1984) was renowned for her ability to shift between rasas with the subtlest modulation of her eyes alone — a skill she attributed to the devadasi tradition's centuries-old emphasis on sringara abhinaya.
In Kathakali, rasa expression achieves perhaps its most formalised and visually dramatic form. The nine rasas, called navarasabhava in Kathakali pedagogy, are systematically taught at institutions such as the Kerala Kalamandalam (founded 1930 by the poet Vallathol Narayana Menon). Students spend years perfecting eye exercises (nethrabhinaya) and facial muscle control. The elaborate chutti (face paint) and costumes — green for noble heroes (paccha), red-and-black for villains (kathi and thaadi) — serve as aharya abhinaya that amplifies the emotional register.
Hand gestures (hastas or mudras) form the second critical vocabulary. The Abhinaya Darpana catalogues 28 asamyuta hastas (single-hand gestures) and 23 samyuta hastas (combined-hand gestures), each carrying multiple meanings depending on context. For instance, the pataka hasta can represent a cloud, a forest, or the act of denial, while alapadma (the fully opened lotus) may convey the blooming of beauty in sringara or wide-eyed amazement in adbhuta. The great Odissi maestro Kelucharan Mohapatra (1926–2004) was celebrated for the lyrical precision of his mudra work, creating a seamless unity between gesture and facial expression that became the benchmark for Odissi abhinaya.
Body language and movement quality complete the triad. Vira rasa demands an expanded chest, firm stance, and vigorous nritta (pure dance) sequences. Karuna requires a drooping posture, slow deliberate movement, and a heaviness in the limbs that suggests the weight of grief. The tribhanga (triple-bend) posture characteristic of Odissi lends itself naturally to sringara, while the grounded, angular aramandi of Bharatanatyam provides a powerful base for both raudra and vira. In Mohiniyattam, the gentle lasya (graceful) quality of movement inherently favours sringara and karuna, while Kuchipudi, with its blend of nritta vigour and dramatic narrative, traverses the full range of Navarasa with remarkable agility.
Rasa in Contemporary Practice and Performance
In contemporary practice, the Navarasa continue to serve as both a pedagogical framework and an artistic aspiration. Dancers across all classical forms undergo rigorous training in what is sometimes called "rasa sadhana" — the disciplined practice of embodying each emotional state until it can be summoned at will, with authenticity and without self-consciousness.
"The dancer must forget herself and become the emotion. When sringara is being portrayed, every cell of the body must breathe love. When karuna comes, the audience must feel their own hearts break." — Rukmini Devi Arundale, founder of Kalakshetra (1936), whose revival of Bharatanatyam placed particular emphasis on the spiritual dimensions of rasa.
Some modern choreographers have explored the Navarasa as a structural device, creating full-length productions that move sequentially through all nine emotions. The celebrated Bharatanatyam artist Malavika Sarukkai and the Kathak virtuoso Kumudini Lakhia have both created works that interrogate and expand the boundaries of rasa theory while remaining rooted in its classical foundations. In Kathak, the thumri and bhava batana traditions preserve an intimate, nuanced approach to sringara and karuna that traces its lineage through the Lucknow gharana's emphasis on expressional refinement.
Yet challenges persist. Critics observe that many contemporary performances privilege nritta (technical virtuosity) over nritya (expressive dance), resulting in productions that dazzle the eye but leave the heart unmoved. The subtlety required for rasas like shanta and bibhatsa — which lack the immediate dramatic appeal of raudra or sringara — means they are often underrepresented in concert programmes. The Navarasa, however, remain a reminder that Indian classical dance aspires to something beyond entertainment: the creation of an aesthetic experience so complete that it mirrors, in Abhinavagupta's words, the bliss of Brahman itself — rasananda, the joy of rasa, as a pathway to the transcendent.
For the serious rasika, learning to recognise and receive the Navarasa is itself a practice — a cultivation of sensitivity that deepens with every performance witnessed, every padam savoured, and every moment of shared aesthetic communion between dancer and audience.